Mango (Mangifera indica) - Tropical and Dry Land Fruit Production (HORMA-102) - Unit I - MSc Horticulture

The King of Fruits: Complete Guide to Mango Production

Dive into the commercial, ecophysiological, and advanced agronomic practices of Mangifera indica. From high-density planting to post-harvest management, this comprehensive M.Sc. Horticulture guide covers the science and art of tropical fruit production.

Mango (Mangifera indica)

Freshly harvested Mangoes (Mangifera indica) from India

Commercial Varieties of Regional, National, and International Importance

Mango is a highly diversified fruit, with numerous varieties that differ based on region, taste, yield, and market demand. Here’s a breakdown of varieties by importance:

Regional Importance (India):

Alphonso (Hapus): Popular in Maharashtra, known for its flavor, sweetness, and saffron-colored pulp. Exports to the Middle East, Europe, and the USA.
Kesar: Grown in Gujarat and Maharashtra. It has a bright orange pulp and is known for its sweetness. Mostly consumed fresh and used in juices.
Dashehari: Originating in Uttar Pradesh, this is one of the most consumed varieties in North India. Known for its sweet and juicy flesh.
Langra: Cultivated in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and parts of Punjab. Famous for its fibrous texture and unique taste.
Banganapalli (Benishan): Grown in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, it has firm flesh, good transportability, and is favored for both fresh consumption and processing.

National Importance (India):

Totapuri: Grown in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, it’s a key variety for processing due to its fibrous pulp. Used for making pickles, pulp, and juices.
Neelum: Grown in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. A dual-purpose variety used both for table consumption and export.
Amrapali: Hybrid of Dashehari and Neelum, developed by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI). Known for its dwarf nature, high yield, and intense flavor.

International Importance:

Tommy Atkins: Originating in Florida, USA, this variety is well-known for its shelf-life and resistance to diseases. Widely grown in the USA, Brazil, and Mexico.
Kent: Popular in the USA, Mexico, and Ecuador. Known for its sweet taste, juicy texture, and minimal fiber.
Haden: Originally from Florida, this variety is known for its attractive red blush and is widely grown in the USA, Mexico, and South America.
Keitt: Known for late-season harvest, this variety is popular in the USA and South Africa. It has good keeping quality and is low in fiber.

Ecophysiological Requirements

Mango cultivation is highly dependent on climate, soil conditions, and water availability, making its ecophysiological requirements essential to achieving high yields and quality fruit.

Climate:

Tropical and Subtropical Conditions: Mango thrives in temperatures ranging from 24°C to 27°C. It cannot tolerate frost and prefers areas free from extreme winter conditions.
Rainfall: The ideal annual rainfall for mango is between 750-2500 mm, with a dry period for fruit ripening. Excessive rains during flowering can result in poor fruit set.
Humidity: High humidity, especially during flowering, encourages diseases like anthracnose and powdery mildew.
Sunlight: Mango requires full sunlight and should be grown in open areas for better photosynthesis and fruit development.

Soil:

Type: Mango can grow in a variety of soil types, but deep, well-drained loam with a pH between 5.5 and 7.5 is ideal.
Drainage: Poorly drained soils can lead to root rot and other fungal diseases. Proper drainage is essential for healthy root development.
Salinity Tolerance: Mangoes are moderately tolerant to salinity. Salt-affected soils can lead to stunted growth and poor yields.

Temperature:

Flowering and Fruiting: Mango flowering is triggered by a cool, dry winter, and fruiting follows during warmer months. Temperatures below 15°C or above 40°C can negatively affect fruit setting.
Frost Sensitivity: Mango is highly sensitive to frost, particularly during the flowering and fruit-setting stage.

Watering and Irrigation:

Irrigation: Regular irrigation is essential during the initial stages of growth, but during fruit ripening, irrigation should be reduced or stopped to enhance fruit quality and prevent watery fruit.
Drought Tolerance: Mature mango trees can tolerate drought conditions, but young trees require more frequent watering.

Recent Trends in Propagation

Mango propagation methods have evolved to improve yield, quality, and disease resistance. The following are recent trends and advancements:

Grafting (Conventional Method with Improvements):

Epicotyl Grafting: Widely used in India. Grafts are made on seedlings about 10–15 days old, yielding faster results and better disease resistance.
Veneer Grafting: This method involves a slant cut on both the rootstock and the scion, ensuring a high success rate and uniform growth.
Stone Grafting: This involves planting a seed and grafting the shoot when the seedling is just a few weeks old, helping in mass propagation.

Tissue Culture:

Though still under experimentation for commercial use, tissue culture holds promise for mass propagation of disease-free plants with uniform characteristics.
Somatic Embryogenesis is being explored as a means of rapid propagation, but it has not yet reached widespread commercial adoption due to challenges with variation in the plants.

Clonal Rootstocks:

The use of clonal rootstocks is gaining popularity to improve the resilience of mango trees to pests, diseases, and abiotic stress like salinity and drought.
Clonal propagation through layering or cuttings is an ongoing research area to produce uniform rootstock.

High-Density Planting (HDP):

This is becoming popular in commercial orchards. Varieties like Amrapali and Mallika are suitable for high-density planting due to their compact growth habit.
Trees are planted closer (5x5 m or even 3x2 m), allowing for higher yields per hectare.
HDP systems are coupled with pruning, drip irrigation, and fertigation, helping to manage resources efficiently while increasing production.

Canopy Management and Pruning:

Canopy management techniques, including regular pruning and training of trees, help to enhance light penetration, air circulation, and ease of harvest.
Pruning is especially important in high-density systems to maintain tree shape and size.

Use of Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs):

Chemicals like paclobutrazol are used to induce early flowering and regulate the vegetative growth of mango trees, particularly in tropical regions where vegetative growth can dominate.

Rootstock Influence

Rootstocks play a crucial role in the success of mango cultivation by influencing the tree’s growth, yield, disease resistance, and adaptability to environmental conditions. In recent years, selecting the right rootstock has become an essential component of modern mango cultivation.

Dwarfing Effect: Certain rootstocks are selected to control the tree's size, especially for high-density planting systems. For example, rootstocks like Olour and Kurukkan are known to impart dwarfing effects on mango trees, making them more manageable for cultivation and harvesting.
Disease and Pest Resistance: Rootstocks can enhance the tree's resistance to soil-borne diseases like root rot and gummosis caused by fungi. Varieties such as Gomera 1 and Vellaikolamban are known for their resistance to these diseases. Some rootstocks also exhibit tolerance to nematodes, particularly in sandy soils.
Adaptability to Soil and Climate: Rootstocks can influence the tree's ability to thrive in adverse conditions such as saline or drought-prone soils. Rootstocks like Nekkare are commonly used in arid regions due to their tolerance to saline conditions and poor soils. In waterlogged areas, rootstocks like Bappakai or Vellaikolamban are chosen for their ability to survive and thrive under excessive soil moisture conditions.
Improved Fruiting and Productivity: Specific rootstocks can enhance flowering, fruit set, and the overall productivity of mango trees. Rootstocks like K-5 and Amrapali, which exhibit faster growth and high fruit-bearing capacity, are often used in commercial plantations.

Planting Systems

Mango planting systems have evolved to cater to different scales of cultivation, ranging from traditional orchards to high-density, precision-managed systems.

Traditional Planting (Low-Density): In traditional orchards, mango trees are planted at wide spacing, typically 10 x 10 m or more, allowing each tree to grow large. This system is ideal for regions with ample land, where farmers do not need to maximize per-hectare yields. Traditional planting requires less frequent pruning, but the trees take longer to bear fruit and need more resources for maintenance.
High-Density Planting (HDP): High-density planting is a modern approach that involves planting trees closer together, typically at spacings of 5 x 5 m, 3 x 3 m, or even 2.5 x 2.5 m for dwarf or semi-dwarf varieties. Varieties like Amrapali and Alphonso on dwarfing rootstocks are preferred for HDP because of their compact growth. HDP allows more trees per hectare, increasing overall productivity, but requires regular canopy management and precision irrigation systems to ensure that each tree receives adequate nutrients and light.
Ultra High-Density Planting (UHDP): UHDP involves planting trees as close as 2 x 2 m or 1.5 x 1.5 m, making it suitable for smaller or dwarf varieties. With this system, up to 1,600–2,500 trees can be planted per hectare. This system is highly productive, with yields reaching up to 60–80 tons per hectare, compared to 10–15 tons in traditional systems. UHDP is commonly used in countries like Israel and is gaining popularity in India, Mexico, and other mango-producing regions. This system requires advanced management techniques such as pruning, drip irrigation, fertigation, and growth regulator applications.
Square and Rectangular Systems: The square system involves planting trees at equal distances, forming a grid pattern, which is the most common traditional system. Rectangular systems are used when more space is required between rows to facilitate mechanization, such as for tractor movement or irrigation.
Paired Row System: Two trees are planted close together, with a larger gap between each pair. This system allows efficient use of space while still facilitating airflow and sunlight penetration.

Cropping Systems

Mango cropping systems can vary based on the farmer's objectives, resources, and climate.

Mono-cropping: Mango trees are cultivated exclusively in an orchard without intercropping with other species. This system is commonly used in large commercial plantations. Mono-cropping simplifies management, as all cultural practices are focused on the same crop, but it can lead to soil degradation and pest/disease buildup over time.
Inter-cropping: Young mango orchards (before full canopy development) allow intercropping with short-duration crops like vegetables, pulses (e.g., moong, urad), or leguminous crops (e.g., cowpea). Inter-cropping provides an additional source of income before the mango trees come into full production. Nitrogen-fixing crops like groundnut or pigeon pea can improve soil fertility and benefit mango trees.
Mixed Cropping: Mango is also planted in mixed orchards along with crops like guava, citrus, or papaya. This system provides diversity and helps in utilizing resources more effectively.
Agroforestry Systems: Mango trees can be integrated into agroforestry systems where they are grown alongside other trees or crops. This system provides shade, prevents soil erosion, and contributes to biodiversity. The spacing is adjusted to allow for the coexistence of both crops and trees.

Root Zone Management

The health of a mango tree is strongly influenced by root zone management practices, which affect nutrient uptake, soil moisture, and overall tree vigor.

Irrigation and Water Management: Mango requires careful irrigation, especially in dryland regions. Drip irrigation systems are highly effective in delivering precise amounts of water to the root zone. Water stress during flowering and fruit set can lead to poor fruit formation. Conversely, excess water, especially in heavy soils, can lead to root diseases like phytophthora.
Mulching: Mulching the root zone with organic materials like straw, leaves, or compost helps in maintaining soil moisture, controlling weeds, and improving soil structure. Mulch also enhances microbial activity in the root zone, promoting nutrient availability.
Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management: A regular supply of nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium (NPK), and micronutrients is essential for mango trees, particularly during flowering and fruiting. Organic manures, compost, and green manure crops can improve soil fertility and enhance root health.
Fertigation: Combining irrigation with nutrient application (fertigation) is an efficient way to supply nutrients directly to the root zone, particularly in high-density or UHDP systems. Fertigation with NPK and micronutrients helps ensure balanced nutrition and minimizes nutrient leaching.

Canopy Management

Canopy management is critical for ensuring proper sunlight penetration, air circulation, and ease of harvest. It plays a vital role in managing tree size, shape, and overall productivity, particularly in high-density planting systems.

Pruning: Regular pruning helps control the height and spread of mango trees. It also encourages better branching, which can enhance fruit-bearing potential. Topping and heading back of branches are done to limit the vertical growth and maintain a manageable tree height (ideally 2-3 meters in HDP). Thinning of internal branches allows sunlight to penetrate the canopy, improving photosynthesis and reducing disease incidence.
Training: Young trees are trained during the initial years to develop a strong framework of branches. Trees are typically trained to have 3-4 main scaffold branches spaced out from the trunk to support the weight of the fruit. Training also helps in shaping the tree, making it easier to manage for future pruning, spraying, and harvesting.
Rejuvenation Pruning: Older, unproductive mango orchards can be rejuvenated by cutting back large branches and inducing new, vigorous growth. This method has been particularly successful in trees over 40 years old, helping to restore productivity.
Growth Regulators: Plant growth regulators like paclobutrazol are used to control excessive vegetative growth and promote flowering. This is particularly important in regions with year-round vegetative growth, where flowering is inhibited by constant shoot development.

Nutrient Management

Proper nutrient management is essential for achieving high yields and good fruit quality in mango. The nutrient requirements of mango trees vary based on their age, growth stage, and the local soil and climate conditions. The following are the key nutrients and their roles:

Nitrogen (N): Promotes vegetative growth, leaf development, and shoot formation. Excess nitrogen can delay flowering and promote excessive vegetative growth, reducing fruit set. Hence, it should be applied in moderation during flowering and fruiting stages.
Phosphorus (P): Crucial for root development, flowering, and fruit set. Phosphorus is usually applied during the early stages of growth and at the flowering stage to improve fruit development.
Potassium (K): Enhances fruit quality, size, and color, and increases resistance to diseases. Potassium is particularly important during the fruiting stage, as it improves fruit firmness and helps in the formation of sugars, enhancing fruit sweetness.
Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg): Calcium is essential for cell wall formation and reducing fruit cracking. Magnesium is important for photosynthesis as it is part of the chlorophyll molecule and aids in energy transfer within the plant.
Micronutrients: Zinc (Zn) is essential for flowering and fruit set. Its deficiency can lead to poor fruit production. Boron (B) is crucial for pollen tube formation and successful fruit set. Iron (Fe) is necessary for chlorophyll synthesis, and its deficiency causes leaf yellowing (chlorosis), affecting overall tree health.

Nutrient Application Schedule:

Young Trees: Apply farmyard manure (FYM) at 10–20 kg per tree per year. NPK fertilizers should be applied at 100-200 g N, 50-100 g P, and 100-200 g K per tree.
Bearing Trees: Increase the application of fertilizers to 500-1000 g N, 300-500 g P, and 500-1000 g K per tree per year, depending on the tree size and yield potential. Organic fertilizers and micronutrient sprays can help improve fruit quality.

Water Management

Mango trees are generally tolerant to drought, but optimal water management is crucial for high yields and fruit quality.

Irrigation Scheduling: In regions with dry climates, mango trees benefit from regular irrigation, especially during critical stages like flowering, fruit set, and development.
Flowering and Fruit Set Stage: Water stress during flowering and fruit set can lead to poor fruit formation and increased fruit drop. Adequate irrigation during this period is essential.
Post-Harvest Stage: After harvest, irrigation is reduced to allow the tree to go into a natural dormancy phase, which is important for next season’s flowering.
Drip Irrigation: Drip irrigation is an efficient water management technique that supplies water directly to the root zone, ensuring optimal water use and minimizing wastage. This method is highly recommended for high-density planting systems. It allows for precise irrigation, reducing the risk of over-watering or waterlogging, which can lead to root diseases.
Mulching: Organic mulches like straw, grass, or plastic mulch can help in conserving soil moisture, improving soil structure, and preventing weed growth. Mulching also enhances water infiltration and reduces evaporation.

Fertigation

Fertigation combines irrigation with the application of soluble fertilizers through the drip system. This method is particularly effective in high-density or ultra-high-density mango orchards.

Benefits of Fertigation: Efficient use of water and fertilizers by applying them directly to the root zone. Improved nutrient uptake and reduced nutrient leaching. Allows for a balanced and continuous supply of nutrients throughout the growing season.
Fertigation Schedule: NPK fertilizers are dissolved in water and applied periodically throughout the season. Fertigation is particularly useful during the flowering and fruit development stages to ensure the trees receive adequate nutrients without the need for manual application.

Role of Bioregulators

Bioregulators, or plant growth regulators (PGRs), are used to manage the growth, flowering, fruiting, and overall physiology of mango trees.

Paclobutrazol (PBZ): A widely used growth retardant in mango that suppresses vegetative growth and induces flowering. It is especially useful in regions where excessive vegetative growth hinders flowering. PBZ is applied to the soil around the tree’s drip line in doses of 2.5–3.0 g a.i. per tree, a few months before the expected flowering period.
Ethrel (Ethephon): Used for inducing early and uniform flowering in mango trees.
Gibberellic Acid (GA3): GA3 can be used to delay flowering in areas where early flowering could expose the mango crop to unfavorable climatic conditions, such as frost.
Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA): NAA is used to control fruit drop by improving fruit retention after flowering.

Abiotic Factors Limiting Fruit Production

Mango production is highly influenced by abiotic factors like temperature, water availability, wind, and soil conditions.

Temperature: Mango trees require warm, tropical climates. Temperatures below 10°C or above 45°C can lead to poor flowering, fruit set, and reduced fruit quality. Frost and extreme cold during the flowering stage can cause flower damage and fruit abortion.
Water Stress: Both excess and lack of water can adversely affect mango production. Waterlogging during the rainy season leads to root diseases, while drought stress during flowering can reduce fruit set and increase fruit drop.
Wind: Strong winds during the flowering and fruiting stages can damage flowers and immature fruits, reducing yields.

Physiology of Flowering, Pollination, Fruit Set, and Development

Flowering: Mango trees typically flower once a year, and environmental factors like temperature, light, and water stress influence the initiation of flowering. Flowering in mangoes occurs in panicles (flower clusters), with a large number of small flowers that are either male (staminate) or hermaphroditic (perfect).
Pollination: Mangoes are cross-pollinated primarily by insects, with honeybees playing a significant role. Honeybees are the most important pollinators, as they visit the flowers to collect nectar and pollen, aiding in the transfer of pollen from one flower to another.
Fruit Set: After successful pollination, only a small percentage of flowers develop into fruits (usually less than 1%). Fruit drop is common, with many young fruits aborting in the early stages of development due to insufficient pollination, nutrient imbalance, or environmental stress.
Fruit Development: Mango fruit development goes through different stages: from fertilisation and cell division to cell expansion and fruit maturation. Mangoes require 90-120 days from flowering to maturity, depending on the variety and growing conditions.

Honeybees in Cross-Pollination

Honeybees are vital to the cross-pollination of mango trees, significantly contributing to fruit set.

Role of Honeybees: Honeybees visit the mango flowers to collect nectar and pollen, inadvertently transferring pollen from one flower to another, facilitating cross-pollination. This process increases the chances of fruit set and improves the overall yield and fruit quality.
Management of Honeybees in Mango Orchards: To encourage honeybee activity, mango orchards should avoid spraying pesticides during flowering periods, as this can harm the bee population. Installing beehives near mango orchards can enhance pollination and improve yields.

Physiological Disorders: Causes and Remedies

Physiological disorders in mango are often caused by environmental stress, nutrient imbalances, or improper management practices. Some of the common physiological disorders in mango are:

Fruit Drop:

Causes: Poor pollination, water stress, nutrient deficiency (especially nitrogen, potassium, or boron), and temperature fluctuations. Excessive vegetative growth can also result in poor fruit set and increased fruit drop.
Remedies: Apply balanced nutrition, including micronutrients like boron and zinc. Ensure adequate irrigation, especially during critical stages like flowering and fruit set. Use plant growth regulators like NAA (Naphthalene Acetic Acid) to reduce premature fruit drop.

Mango Malformation:

Causes: This disorder is characterized by abnormal flowering and vegetative growth, leading to malformed inflorescences and poor fruiting. Malformation is often attributed to hormonal imbalances, environmental stress, or fungal pathogens like Fusarium.
Remedies: Application of Paclobutrazol to reduce vegetative growth and promote healthy flowering. Prune malformed inflorescences and shoots. Fungicidal sprays, if the disorder is caused by fungal infection.

Spongy Tissue:

Causes: This disorder is common in varieties like 'Alphonso' and occurs due to incomplete ripening, resulting in a spongy, unpalatable tissue in the fruit. It is caused by improper ripening conditions, high temperatures, and imbalances in calcium and magnesium levels.
Remedies: Maintain proper storage and ripening temperatures (avoid high temperatures). Use calcium sprays to strengthen cell walls and avoid tissue collapse. Harvest fruit at the appropriate maturity to avoid post-harvest disorders.

Fruit Cracking:

Causes: Uneven water supply, rapid fluctuations in moisture levels, or calcium deficiency can cause fruit cracking, especially during the fruit development stage.
Remedies: Maintain consistent soil moisture through proper irrigation practices. Apply calcium sprays to strengthen the fruit skin. Mulch around trees to conserve soil moisture.

Quality Improvement by Management Practices

Several cultural and management practices can significantly enhance mango fruit quality:

Canopy Management: Regular pruning to maintain an open canopy improves light penetration and air circulation, resulting in uniform fruit ripening and higher quality. Proper canopy management reduces disease incidence and improves fruit color.
Nutrient Management: A balanced fertilization program, especially during the flowering and fruiting stages, ensures optimal fruit size, color, and flavor. Micronutrient sprays (zinc, boron) are essential for improving fruit set and development.
Irrigation Management: Proper irrigation, especially during fruit development, is crucial for maintaining fruit size and preventing physiological disorders like fruit cracking and spongy tissue. Drip irrigation ensures consistent moisture levels, promoting better fruit quality.
Use of Plant Growth Regulators: Application of Paclobutrazol reduces excessive vegetative growth, improves flowering, and enhances fruit size and quality. NAA and GA3 can help in controlling fruit drop and improving fruit retention.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Controlling pests and diseases through IPM practices, such as the use of biological controls and minimal use of chemicals, ensures that the fruits remain free from residues and of export quality.

Maturity Indices

Determining the correct stage of maturity is critical for harvesting mangoes that will have good shelf life and flavor. Some maturity indices for mango are:

Color Change: Skin color turns from dark green to lighter green or develops a yellowish tinge in some varieties.
Specific Gravity: Mature mangoes have a higher specific gravity and will sink in water, while immature fruits float.
Days After Flowering (DAF): Mangoes are usually harvested around 90-120 days after flowering, depending on the variety and growing conditions.
Fruit Size and Shape: Mature fruits have reached their maximum size and exhibit a rounded or full shape.

Harvesting, Grading, Packing, and Storage

Harvesting:

Mangoes should be harvested carefully to avoid bruising or damaging the fruits. Key harvesting techniques include:

Manual Picking: Use of harvesting poles with attached bags or nets to gently pick fruits without damaging them.
Mechanical Harvesting: While not commonly used, some mechanized systems are available for large orchards, but care must be taken to minimize fruit damage.

Grading, Packing, and Storage:

Grading: Mangoes are graded based on size, weight, shape, and the absence of defects. Common grades include extra-large, large, medium, and small. Premium grades are generally exported.
Packing: Fruits are packed in cushioned crates or cardboard boxes with ventilated packaging to avoid heat buildup during transportation. Cushioning materials like foam or paper are used to protect fruits from bruising.
Storage: Mangoes are stored at 13–15°C with 85–90% relative humidity to extend shelf life. Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage with reduced oxygen and elevated CO2 levels can further extend the storage life of mangoes.
Ripening Techniques: Ethylene gas is commonly used to induce uniform ripening in harvested mangoes. Traditional ripening methods involve using straw or hay for natural ripening, but this can lead to uneven ripening and fungal infections. Ripening chambers with controlled temperature and humidity provide consistent ripening without compromising fruit quality.

Industrial and Export Potential

Mango has significant industrial and export potential due to its diverse uses in fresh and processed forms. Key areas include:

Processed Products: Mango pulp, puree, juice, chutney, pickles, and dried mango slices are widely produced for both domestic and international markets. Mangoes are also used in ice creams, yogurts, beverages, and confectionery.
Export Markets: India is the largest producer of mangoes globally and exports significant quantities to countries like the UAE, Saudi Arabia, UK, and the USA. Major export varieties include 'Alphonso', 'Kesar', and 'Banganapalli'. Export quality mangoes must meet stringent phytosanitary and quality standards, including fruit size, shape, and freedom from pests.

Agri Export Zones (AEZ) and Industrial Supports

Agri Export Zones (AEZ): AEZs are specially designated areas with a focus on exporting specific agricultural products, including mangoes. These zones are provided with infrastructure and marketing support to promote exports. In India, AEZs for mangoes have been established in regions like Uttar Pradesh (Malihabad), Maharashtra (Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg), Andhra Pradesh (Chittoor), and Gujarat (Gir-Somnath).
Industrial Supports: Mango processing industries receive support through government schemes like the Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana, which provides financial assistance for setting up food processing units. Exporters are supported through the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), which helps in market promotion, quality control, and developing export infrastructure. Various state governments also provide subsidies and incentives for mango cultivation, processing, and export.

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